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Variable-Rate Irrigation, Drainage Optimization, and Water Management

Digital Solutions for Soil Health, Water Quality, and Conservation Practices

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Authors

, L

Abalos, D

Adhikari, K

Albuquerque, M

Alchanatis, V

Andreoli, A

Ard, K

Ata-Ul-Karim, S

Auzani Biscaino, M.L

Bahat, I

Bassoi, L.H

Boeno, D

Botero, J.F

Bručienė, I

Buragienė, S

Butterbach-Bahl, K

Cammarano, D

Campos de Oliveira, F.M

Canicatti, M

Cavalcanti, R

Centeri, C

Cha Valdez, M.E

Chaves, C

Chimello, L

Cohen, Y

Costa, B.S

Duque, J

Enderle, T

Estrada, E

Faria, M.A

Ferreira, E.J

Figueiredo, G

Filho, O

Flynn, K

Fulton, J.P

GUERRA, P

Gnyp, M

Goldshtein, E

Grant, R

Grünzweig, J.M

Gutierrez, S.A

Hermes, M

Jorge, L.A

Kaefer Seganfredo, G

Kamienski, C

Kazlauskas, M

Keisar, O

Kern, L.G

Kyere, I

Lacerda, L

Lidor, G

László, M

Maldaner, I

Martinez, M.M

Mboh, C.M

Messiga, A

Milics, G

Mullich, A

Mundada, K

Murumkar, A

Müllich, A

Naujokienė, V

Netzer, Y

Noal Santarem, M

Nze Memiaghe, J.D

Oldoni, H

Oliveira, R.M

Oliveira, T

Ortega, I

Ortega, R.A

Pegoraro, V.C

Pereira de Morais, E

Phillips, S

Poblete, H

Porter, W

Portz, G

Quicaña, A.

Radhakrishnan, A

Ramos da Silva, G

Raucci, A.R

Rolim Farias da Silva, E

Rossetto Gerlach, L

Santos Cocco, T

Sgarbossa, J

Sharma, V

Shearer, S.A

Silveira Pavão, L

Silveira de Farias, M

Smith, D.R

Sokas, S

Souza, B.F

Souza, C

Souza, E.A

Subramoni, H

Szenek, Z

Szám, D

Tanaka, T.S

Turchiello, J

Vian, A.L

Wendt, L

Wrubleski, M

Zapata, J.I

Zhou, Y

da Silva, G.B

de Souza Salles, E

sigdel, U

Šarauskis, E

Topics

Digital Solutions for Soil Health, Water Quality, and Conservation Practices

Variable-Rate Irrigation, Drainage Optimization, and Water Management

Type

Poster

Oral

Year

2026

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Topics

Filter results19 paper(s) found.
1. System-based Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Production The major challenge addressed is the systemic mismanagement of nitrogen (N) fertilizer in agricultural fields leading to problems such as leaching of nitrates into groundwater and emission of harmful greenhouse gases. Digital technologies are commercialized in agriculture (available from the early 1990s) but have failed with N fertilization. Despite agriculture is the least digitized sector (as highlighted at the last World Economic Forum) to make a reliable recommendation, researchers need t... D. Cammarano, S. Ata-ul-karim, M. Canicatti, D. Abalos, Y. Zhou, T.S. Tanaka, K. Butterbach-bahl Download paper
2. Spatial and Temporal Variability of Soil Health Scores and their Relationship to Crop Yield Soil health is the continued capacity of the soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. To assess and evaluate soil health, the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (CASH) was established. In CASH, different soil health indicators are used to assign a score. These indicators are soil properties that can vary spatially and temporally. In this study, soil health scores were determined across a landscape ... E. Estrada, S. Phillips, R. Grant Download paper
3. Precision Tillage Operations: Analyzing the Efficiency of Conventional and Robotic Systems ABSTRACT. The crop production sector is labor- and energy-intensive, significantly impacting the environment. Soil tillage is one of the most expensive and polluting technological operations; therefore, modern automated and precision technologies applied according to soil variability can help change economic costs and environmental pollution. This study evaluated the effects of site-specific variable depth tillage using two combinations of a conventional tractor and a multifunctional cultivat... E. Šarauskis, S. Sokas, I. Bručienė, S. Buragienė, M. Kazlauskas, V. Naujokienė Download paper
4. Probfuse Dashboard: Uncertainty-aware Geospatial Fusion For Climate-smart Conservation Recommendations In The Maumee River Basin Nutrient losses from tile-drained row crops in the Maumee River Basin remain a primary driver of harmful algal blooms in western Lake Erie, despite expanding conservation programs and cost-share incentives like the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). Existing tools rely on static look-up tables or county averages, lacking probabilistic fusion of multi-source data or uncertainty estimates. This hinders field staff and producers from integrating soils, climate and program rules und... H. Subramoni, A. Murumkar, K. Ard, S.A. Shearer, A. Radhakrishnan, J.P. Fulton, K. Mundada
5. Remote Sensor Estimation of Cover Crops Macronutrients Uptake Aiming to Support Farmers’ Fields Nutrients Management. The introduction of Cover crops/Catch crops into the Cash crops field rotation system is increasing year after year and becoming common practice among farmers. In Europe, this is especially driven by Regenerative agriculture practices and government subsidies. But the introduction of cover crops changes the dynamics of nutrients in the field cultivation system, as legumes cover crops can biologically fix atmospheric nitrogen to the soil, bring nutrients from the sub-soil to the surface, t... G. Portz, C.M. Mboh, M. Gnyp, I. Kyere Download paper
6. Using VIS-NIR spectroscopy to predict Water-Extractable Soil Phosphorus content in Texas Vertisols Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient for plant growth. However, excessive P application can result in P accumulation in agricultural soils, increasing the risk of P losses to water sources. Water-extractable P (Pw) data are essential for assessing the risk of environmental P losses. Investigating field-scale variability of Pw using visible–near infrared spectroscopy (VIS–NIR) remains limited. This study aimed to develop an empirical relationship between Pw, soil ...
7. Quantitative Analysis of Sub-catchment Scale Erosion-sedimentation Dynamics in a Grassed Buffer Zone Using Hyper-resolution Soil Loss Modeling in a Hungarian Hilly Arable Environment Soil erosion represents one of the most severe environmental and economic risks in arable crop production, leading to the irreversible degradation of the topsoil layer. This research aims to provide a quantitative analysis of the sediment retention capacity of a grassed buffer strip installed within an erosion rill, utilizing 1*1 m resolution soil loss modeling. The methodological base of the study was the Unit Stream Power-based Erosion Deposition (USPED) model. The application of ... Z. Szenek, D. Szám, C. Centeri, G. Milics, M. László Download paper
8. Management Zone Delineation for Subsoiling Using Apparent Electrical Conductivity, Elevation, and Soil Moisture Soil compaction is a primary physical factor limiting agricultural crop development. It mechanically impedes root growth, alters soil water dynamics, and consequently affects plant nutrient uptake. In agricultural systems under mechanization or animal trampling, compacted layers are spatially heterogeneous. This necessitates spatial analysis approaches for more precise management decisions, as average values often prove inadequate for site-specific problem resolution. Cons... T. Oliveira , G. Ramos Da Silva, E.A. Souza, R.M. Oliveira, B.F. Souza, M.A. Faria Download paper
9. Spatial Distribution of the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure in a Coffee-growing Area Coffee production has a significant socioeconomic impact in Brazil, requiring efficient and technological management practices to ensure high yields and soil conservation. In this context, assessing soil physical quality is indispensable, and the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) methodology is a rapid, cost-effective, and easily applicable field alternative compared to traditional laboratory analyses. The objective of this study was to visually evaluate the structure of a soil culti... E. De Souza Salles, C. Souza, E. Pereira De Morais, O. Filho Download paper
10. Digital Terrain Modeling and Topographic Smoothing for Levee Optimization in Irrigated Rice Areas Using AgroCAD® and T3rra Cutta© The systematization of lowland areas intended for irrigated rice production requires precise topographic planning to ensure efficiency in water management and operational performance of agricultural activities. Traditional land leveling methods are often based on empirical approaches, which may result in excessive soil movement and inefficient levee configurations. Advances in Precision Agriculture have enabled the integration of high-precision GNSS positioning with digital terrain modeling t... A. Mullich, I. Maldaner, L. , L. Wendt, J. Turchiello, M. Noal Santarem, M.L. Auzani Biscaino Download paper
11. Use of Digital Permeameter for the Functional Characterization of Geoenvironments Characterizing agricultural geoenvironments with precision is inherently a complex task. Historically, this process has relied on quasi-static edaphic attributes, such as soil texture and apparent electrical conductivity. However, a critical problem exists, as these parameters exhibit low sensitivity to ephemeral structural changes resulting from soil management systems. Texture conditions the productive potential, yet it fails to reflect modifications in pore geometry induced by mechanical p... C. Chaves, A. . Quicaña, L. Chimello, M. Hermes, A. Andreoli, M. Albuquerque, G. Figueiredo, M. Hermes
12. Topographic Modeling Using Remotely Piloted Aircraft to Identify Areas with Water Erosion Potential and to Plan Sowing Lines Water erosion constitutes one of the main factors of agricultural soil degradation. In this context, knowledge of the topography of agricultural fields and the planning of sowing lines guided by geotechnologies emerges as a strategy to mitigate surface runoff and soil loss. This study aimed to perform the topographic modeling of an agricultural field and to analyze the effect of using different sowing line designs on the longitudinal slope of these lines. The study was conducted in an agricul... L. Silveira Pavão, A. Müllich, E. Rolim Farias Da Silva, R. Cavalcanti, M. Silveira De Farias, I. , J. Sgarbossa, L.
13. Interaction Between Biological Nitrogen Fixation and Urea Rates on Nitrogen Accumulation and Yield in Maize Nitrogen (N) is a fundamental nutrient for maize, with a direct impact on the crop’s yield potential, and it represents one of the highest costs in the production system. The possibility of biologically fixing N emerges as a potential strategy for managing crops in a more economical and efficient manner, reducing dependence on mineral nitrogen fertilizers and promoting greater physiological balance in the crop. A wide range of biological products has been introduced with the aim of comp... T. Enderle, T. Santos Cocco, M. Wrubleski, L. Rossetto Gerlach, A.L. Vian
14. Spatial Variability of Biochemical Soil Properties and Its Relationship to Physical and Chemical Properties and Vegetation Indices Biochemical soil properties, particularly enzymatic activity, are increasingly recognised as important indicators of soil quality within the context of regenerative agriculture. However, limited information exists regarding the spatial variability of these properties in fruit orchards at varying scales, as well as their relationships with other soil characteristics, such as texture and soil organic matter, and with plant quality. This study aimed to investigate the spatial variability... R.A. Ortega, M.M. Martinez, H. Poblete, I. Ortega
15. Precision Irrigation and Beyond: A Multi-Step Zoning Approach for Vineyard Water Management and Wine Quality Enhancement Spatial variability in soil moisture, terrain, and vine physiology presents a major challenge for efficient water management in vineyards. Traditional uniform irrigation often fails to address this heterogeneity, limiting both water use efficiency and wine quality. This study investigated spatial and temporal variations in vine water stress over five consecutive growing seasons, and evaluated zone-specific precision agriculture strategies to support improved irrigation and complementary viney... Y. Cohen, I. Bahat, J.M. Grünzweig, V. Alchanatis , O. Keisar, G. Lidor, E. Goldshtein, Y. Netzer Download paper
16. Evaluation of Irrigation Efficiency Using Precision Agriculture Tools on a Mandarin Orange Farm Afourer in Paysandú, Uruguay Efficient water management in citrus farming requires monitoring systems that integrate real-time climate data and accurate soil moisture measurements to optimize irrigation decisions within a precision agriculture framework, accounting for spatial variability in soil water availability. The use of continuous monitoring technologies improves the efficiency of drip irrigation and reduces water losses associated with both water deficits and excesses in commercial production systems. Facing this... M.E. Cha Valdez, D. Boeno, J.I. Zapata , J. Duque Download paper
17. A Hybrid Non-Destructive Approach Combining Image Processing and Spectral Feature Selection for Grapevine Leaf Water Content Estimation Reliable and continuous estimation of leaf water content (LWC) is essential for viticulture, as it enables assessment of spatiotemporal variability in vine water demand and supports improved irrigation management efficiency within Precision Agriculture (PA) practices. Although the gravimetric method based on fresh weight (FW) and dry weight (DW) measurements provides accurate LWC estimates, it is time-consuming, destructive, and exhibits limited scalability for large sample sizes. In contrast... L.H. Bassoi, B.S. Costa, E.J. Ferreira, H. Oldoni, L.A. Jorge Download paper
18. Soil-Sensing-Based Irrigation Decision Modeling for Greenhouse Tomato Crops Using Machine Learning Global agriculture faces increasing pressure to optimize water-use efficiency, particularly for high-demand crops like tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Tomato is among the most widely consumed vegetables worldwide, playing a central role in global food systems. From an agronomic perspective, tomato crops are highly sensitive to water availability and distribution, requiring precise irrigation management to ensure sustainable production and high-quality yields. In controlled environments such as... P. Guerra, A.R. Raucci, S.A. Gutierrez , J.F. Botero, C. Kamienski, F.M. Campos De Oliveira Download paper
19. On-Farm Application of Variable Rate Irrigation Strategies It is estimated that nearly 70% of the world’s freshwater withdrawals are used for agriculture. As water resources continue to decline, agricultural systems face increasing pressure to maximize productivity to meet growing global food demand while ensuring sustainable water use. Addressing water management challenges is therefore critical. Variable rate irrigation (VRI) offers a promising solution to improve irrigation use efficiency by adjusting water application rates according to the...

Filter results19 paper(s) found.

1. System-based Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Production

The major challenge addressed is the systemic mismanagement of nitrogen (N) fertilizer in agricultural fields leading to problems such as leaching of nitrates into groundwater and emission of harmful greenhouse gases. Digital technologies are commercialized in agriculture (available from the early 1990s) but have failed with N fertilization. Despite agriculture is the least digitized sector (as highlighted at the last World Economic Forum) to make a reliable recommendation, researchers need t... D. Cammarano, S. Ata-ul-karim, M. Canicatti, D. Abalos, Y. Zhou, T.S. Tanaka, K. Butterbach-bahl

Download paper

2. Spatial and Temporal Variability of Soil Health Scores and their Relationship to Crop Yield

Soil health is the continued capacity of the soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans. To assess and evaluate soil health, the Comprehensive Assessment of Soil Health (CASH) was established. In CASH, different soil health indicators are used to assign a score. These indicators are soil properties that can vary spatially and temporally. In this study, soil health scores were determined across a landscape ... E. Estrada, S. Phillips, R. Grant

Download paper

3. Precision Tillage Operations: Analyzing the Efficiency of Conventional and Robotic Systems

ABSTRACT. The crop production sector is labor- and energy-intensive, significantly impacting the environment. Soil tillage is one of the most expensive and polluting technological operations; therefore, modern automated and precision technologies applied according to soil variability can help change economic costs and environmental pollution. This study evaluated the effects of site-specific variable depth tillage using two combinations of a conventional tractor and a multifunctional cultivat... E. Šarauskis, S. Sokas, I. Bručienė, S. Buragienė, M. Kazlauskas, V. Naujokienė

Download paper

4. Probfuse Dashboard: Uncertainty-aware Geospatial Fusion For Climate-smart Conservation Recommendations In The Maumee River Basin

Nutrient losses from tile-drained row crops in the Maumee River Basin remain a primary driver of harmful algal blooms in western Lake Erie, despite expanding conservation programs and cost-share incentives like the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). Existing tools rely on static look-up tables or county averages, lacking probabilistic fusion of multi-source data or uncertainty estimates. This hinders field staff and producers from integrating soils, climate and program rules und... H. Subramoni, A. Murumkar, K. Ard, S.A. Shearer, A. Radhakrishnan, J.P. Fulton, K. Mundada

5. Remote Sensor Estimation of Cover Crops Macronutrients Uptake Aiming to Support Farmers’ Fields Nutrients Management.

The introduction of Cover crops/Catch crops into the Cash crops field rotation system is increasing year after year and becoming common practice among farmers. In Europe, this is especially driven by Regenerative agriculture practices and government subsidies. But the introduction of cover crops changes the dynamics of nutrients in the field cultivation system, as legumes cover crops can biologically fix atmospheric nitrogen to the soil, bring nutrients from the sub-soil to the surface, t... G. Portz, C.M. Mboh, M. Gnyp, I. Kyere

Download paper

6. Using VIS-NIR spectroscopy to predict Water-Extractable Soil Phosphorus content in Texas Vertisols

Phosphorus (P) is an essential nutrient for plant growth. However, excessive P application can result in P accumulation in agricultural soils, increasing the risk of P losses to water sources. Water-extractable P (Pw) data are essential for assessing the risk of environmental P losses. Investigating field-scale variability of Pw using visible–near infrared spectroscopy (VIS–NIR) remains limited. This study aimed to develop an empirical relationship between Pw, soil ...

7. Quantitative Analysis of Sub-catchment Scale Erosion-sedimentation Dynamics in a Grassed Buffer Zone Using Hyper-resolution Soil Loss Modeling in a Hungarian Hilly Arable Environment

Soil erosion represents one of the most severe environmental and economic risks in arable crop production, leading to the irreversible degradation of the topsoil layer. This research aims to provide a quantitative analysis of the sediment retention capacity of a grassed buffer strip installed within an erosion rill, utilizing 1*1 m resolution soil loss modeling. The methodological base of the study was the Unit Stream Power-based Erosion Deposition (USPED) model. The application of ... Z. Szenek, D. Szám, C. Centeri, G. Milics, M. László

Download paper

8. Management Zone Delineation for Subsoiling Using Apparent Electrical Conductivity, Elevation, and Soil Moisture

Soil compaction is a primary physical factor limiting agricultural crop development. It mechanically impedes root growth, alters soil water dynamics, and consequently affects plant nutrient uptake. In agricultural systems under mechanization or animal trampling, compacted layers are spatially heterogeneous. This necessitates spatial analysis approaches for more precise management decisions, as average values often prove inadequate for site-specific problem resolution. Cons... T. Oliveira , G. Ramos Da Silva, E.A. Souza, R.M. Oliveira, B.F. Souza, M.A. Faria

Download paper

9. Spatial Distribution of the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure in a Coffee-growing Area

Coffee production has a significant socioeconomic impact in Brazil, requiring efficient and technological management practices to ensure high yields and soil conservation. In this context, assessing soil physical quality is indispensable, and the Visual Evaluation of Soil Structure (VESS) methodology is a rapid, cost-effective, and easily applicable field alternative compared to traditional laboratory analyses. The objective of this study was to visually evaluate the structure of a soil culti... E. De Souza Salles, C. Souza, E. Pereira De Morais, O. Filho

Download paper

10. Digital Terrain Modeling and Topographic Smoothing for Levee Optimization in Irrigated Rice Areas Using AgroCAD® and T3rra Cutta©

The systematization of lowland areas intended for irrigated rice production requires precise topographic planning to ensure efficiency in water management and operational performance of agricultural activities. Traditional land leveling methods are often based on empirical approaches, which may result in excessive soil movement and inefficient levee configurations. Advances in Precision Agriculture have enabled the integration of high-precision GNSS positioning with digital terrain modeling t... A. Mullich, I. Maldaner, L. , L. Wendt, J. Turchiello, M. Noal Santarem, M.L. Auzani Biscaino

Download paper

11. Use of Digital Permeameter for the Functional Characterization of Geoenvironments

Characterizing agricultural geoenvironments with precision is inherently a complex task. Historically, this process has relied on quasi-static edaphic attributes, such as soil texture and apparent electrical conductivity. However, a critical problem exists, as these parameters exhibit low sensitivity to ephemeral structural changes resulting from soil management systems. Texture conditions the productive potential, yet it fails to reflect modifications in pore geometry induced by mechanical p... C. Chaves, A. . Quicaña, L. Chimello, M. Hermes, A. Andreoli, M. Albuquerque, G. Figueiredo, M. Hermes

12. Topographic Modeling Using Remotely Piloted Aircraft to Identify Areas with Water Erosion Potential and to Plan Sowing Lines

Water erosion constitutes one of the main factors of agricultural soil degradation. In this context, knowledge of the topography of agricultural fields and the planning of sowing lines guided by geotechnologies emerges as a strategy to mitigate surface runoff and soil loss. This study aimed to perform the topographic modeling of an agricultural field and to analyze the effect of using different sowing line designs on the longitudinal slope of these lines. The study was conducted in an agricul... L. Silveira Pavão, A. Müllich, E. Rolim Farias Da Silva, R. Cavalcanti, M. Silveira De Farias, I. , J. Sgarbossa, L.

13. Interaction Between Biological Nitrogen Fixation and Urea Rates on Nitrogen Accumulation and Yield in Maize

Nitrogen (N) is a fundamental nutrient for maize, with a direct impact on the crop’s yield potential, and it represents one of the highest costs in the production system. The possibility of biologically fixing N emerges as a potential strategy for managing crops in a more economical and efficient manner, reducing dependence on mineral nitrogen fertilizers and promoting greater physiological balance in the crop. A wide range of biological products has been introduced with the aim of comp... T. Enderle, T. Santos Cocco, M. Wrubleski, L. Rossetto Gerlach, A.L. Vian

14. Spatial Variability of Biochemical Soil Properties and Its Relationship to Physical and Chemical Properties and Vegetation Indices

Biochemical soil properties, particularly enzymatic activity, are increasingly recognised as important indicators of soil quality within the context of regenerative agriculture. However, limited information exists regarding the spatial variability of these properties in fruit orchards at varying scales, as well as their relationships with other soil characteristics, such as texture and soil organic matter, and with plant quality. This study aimed to investigate the spatial variability... R.A. Ortega, M.M. Martinez, H. Poblete, I. Ortega

15. Precision Irrigation and Beyond: A Multi-Step Zoning Approach for Vineyard Water Management and Wine Quality Enhancement

Spatial variability in soil moisture, terrain, and vine physiology presents a major challenge for efficient water management in vineyards. Traditional uniform irrigation often fails to address this heterogeneity, limiting both water use efficiency and wine quality. This study investigated spatial and temporal variations in vine water stress over five consecutive growing seasons, and evaluated zone-specific precision agriculture strategies to support improved irrigation and complementary viney... Y. Cohen, I. Bahat, J.M. Grünzweig, V. Alchanatis , O. Keisar, G. Lidor, E. Goldshtein, Y. Netzer

Download paper

16. Evaluation of Irrigation Efficiency Using Precision Agriculture Tools on a Mandarin Orange Farm Afourer in Paysandú, Uruguay

Efficient water management in citrus farming requires monitoring systems that integrate real-time climate data and accurate soil moisture measurements to optimize irrigation decisions within a precision agriculture framework, accounting for spatial variability in soil water availability. The use of continuous monitoring technologies improves the efficiency of drip irrigation and reduces water losses associated with both water deficits and excesses in commercial production systems. Facing this... M.E. Cha Valdez, D. Boeno, J.I. Zapata , J. Duque

Download paper

17. A Hybrid Non-Destructive Approach Combining Image Processing and Spectral Feature Selection for Grapevine Leaf Water Content Estimation

Reliable and continuous estimation of leaf water content (LWC) is essential for viticulture, as it enables assessment of spatiotemporal variability in vine water demand and supports improved irrigation management efficiency within Precision Agriculture (PA) practices. Although the gravimetric method based on fresh weight (FW) and dry weight (DW) measurements provides accurate LWC estimates, it is time-consuming, destructive, and exhibits limited scalability for large sample sizes. In contrast... L.H. Bassoi, B.S. Costa, E.J. Ferreira, H. Oldoni, L.A. Jorge

Download paper

18. Soil-Sensing-Based Irrigation Decision Modeling for Greenhouse Tomato Crops Using Machine Learning

Global agriculture faces increasing pressure to optimize water-use efficiency, particularly for high-demand crops like tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). Tomato is among the most widely consumed vegetables worldwide, playing a central role in global food systems. From an agronomic perspective, tomato crops are highly sensitive to water availability and distribution, requiring precise irrigation management to ensure sustainable production and high-quality yields. In controlled environments such as... P. Guerra, A.R. Raucci, S.A. Gutierrez , J.F. Botero, C. Kamienski, F.M. Campos De Oliveira

Download paper

19. On-Farm Application of Variable Rate Irrigation Strategies

It is estimated that nearly 70% of the world’s freshwater withdrawals are used for agriculture. As water resources continue to decline, agricultural systems face increasing pressure to maximize productivity to meet growing global food demand while ensuring sustainable water use. Addressing water management challenges is therefore critical. Variable rate irrigation (VRI) offers a promising solution to improve irrigation use efficiency by adjusting water application rates according to the...